Pyrrhus of Epirus

History is presented to us as a set of stories. When we tell these stories, we are tempted to follow conventional story lines, and to make our history comply with them. Modern histories often are written as Melodrama, with certain historical figures clearly labelled as heroes or villains. This tends to comply with a political agenda. The Manichean struggle between Good and Evil actually is a Parthian idea, later adopted by the Christian Church.

The ancient Romans and Greeks were not into melodrama. Modern readers are confused by ancient description of people like Hannibal, Vercingetorix, Boudica, and Attila the Hun because the writers do not demonize them. Conflict and war happen. It is a good thing our side won. Tacitus appears to be sympathetic to Boudica and to whoever was leading the Picts at Mons Graupius. I believe he was just doing the why do they hate us exercise, and being honest about it.

The ancient Romans and Greeks were into Greek Tragedy, with its hubris and nemesis. A number of ancient historical accounts clearly have been forced into the structure of Greek Tragedy. An extreme example of this is Herodotus' account of King Croesus of Lydia at the beginning of his histories. Croesus had declared that he was the happiest man in the world. Athenian wise man Solon listed to him some happier men, all of whom had died gloriously, honourably and/or happy somehow.

Croesus was not impressed. Herodotus went on to state that the gods planned a "dreadful vengeance" for him. Having decided to conquer the Persians, Croesus asked the Delphic Oracle how it would all turn out. He was told he would destroy a great kingdom. He set off to war, and he wound up being conquered and captured by Cyrus the Great. Cyrus, according to Herodotus, seems to have suffered a similar fate. Ignoring Croesus' now wise advice, he and his army were destroyed in battle against the Massagetae led by queen Tomyris, who gave his presumably chopped-off head a stern lecture.

Setting

Wikipedia's dates for Pyrrhus are 319/318 to 272BC. This is shortly after the death of Alexander the Great. This puts us in the middle of what Wikipedia calls the Wars of the Diadochi in which Alexander's generals carved up the empire, and murdered the rest of Alexander's family.

Epirus, which very approximately corresponds with present northern Greece and southern Albania, was outside the Macedonian empire conquered by Philip II and Alexander, and it had its own ruling dynasty.

At around 280BC, Rome was busy conquering the Italian peninsula, working their way down to the southern tip at Tarentum.

Pyrrhus is styled in modern accounts as king. The usual Greek word for this is Basileus. This title was used by Spartan and Macedonian rulers, by Alexander the Great, by the diadochi, by Byzantine "emperors", and by modern(ish) Greek kings.

Wars of the Diadochi

At his death in 323BC, Alexander the Great's family consisted of his learning disabled half-brother Arrhidaeus, his wife Roxana, pregnant with their son Alexander IV, his mother Olympias, his sister Cleopatra, and his half-sisters Thessalonike and Cynane. Alexander had the additional wives Stateira II and Parysatis II. Northern Greek men like Macedonians and Epirotes were polygamists, although it appears that their wives weren't. Stateira and Parysatis were Persian princesses and cousins. They were murdered, probably by Roxana. There also was an alleged illegitimate son Heracles.

Traditionally, Alexander, on his deathbed, was asked who would inherit his empire, and he replied it should go to the strongest. Lord Woodhouselee translates this to To the most worthy. Woodhouselee V2P33 Alexander passed a ring to his favourite general Perdiccas. Alexander's generals fought over the succession. Meleager supported Arrhidaeus. Perdiccas supported the yet-to-be-born Alexander IV. They met and they agreed that Arrhidaeus would rule as Philip III, and that Roxana's child would co-rule if it was a boy. Perdiccas then murdered Meleager and the other infantry generals, and he took control of the empire. Roxana did indeed deliver baby Alexander IV.

Perdiccas divided the empire up into provinces or satrapies, under Alexander's cavalry generals.

Ptolemy secured Egypt and established himself as leader. Perdiccas, deciding he was too powerful, led an invasion of Egypt, which failed. He was murdered by his mutinous troops, who joined Ptolemy. Ptolemy decided to focus on controlling Egypt.

Alexander's half sister Cynane had been trained by her Illryian mother in the arts of war. She commanded an army in the field against the Illryians, personally slaying their queen, and defeating them with great slaughter. Cynane had in turn trained her own daughter, Eurydice. She decided to marry Eurydice to Philip III. Evidently in command of some troops, she crossed the Strymon river, and then the Hellespont, into Asia Minor to confront Perdiccas and the Macedonian army, commanded by Perdiccas brother Alcetas. The Macedonians at first paused at the sight of Philippus' daughter, and the sister of Alexander; but after reproaching Alcetas with ingratitude, undaunted at the number of his forces, and his formidable preparations for battle, she bravely advanced to fight against him. She resolved upon a glorious death, rather than, stripped of her dominions, accept a private life, unworthy of the daughter of Philippus. Stratagems — Women Was she murdered, or killed in battle? Alcetas' troops rioted and forced the marriage. Unfortunately, Olympias had Eurydice and Philip III murdered.

Control over Arrhidaeus, Roxana and Alexander IV, fell to Antipater, governor of Macedon. Seleucus took control over Babylon and Assyria. Antipater declared war on Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia, and Antigonus, governor of much of Phrygia and Lydia, was able to defeat, capture and kill him, and secure his territory. He then attacked Babylon and Seleucus, who was forced to flee to Egypt. Ptolemy sent troops to put Seleucus back in power and drive out Antigonus. Antigonus now sent a fleet under his son Demetrius to attack Egypt, and they defeated Ptolemy's fleet. Antigonus and Demetrius now assumed the titles of king, or basileus, and all the other generals followed suit.

Ptolemy and Seleuchus formed a league against Antigonus and Demetrius, which was joined by Cassander the son of Antipater, from Macedon, and Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace. They all fought at the battle of Ipsus. Antigonus was killed and Demetrius forced flee. Woodhouselee V2P33-39 Somewhere along the line, Olympias, Roxana, and Alexander IV were executed or murdered by Cassander.

The figure above, shows approximately what Alexander's empire now looked like. Demetrius still controlled territory and troops, somewhere. We will read more of him.

Epirus

Pyrrhus' Family Tree Sekunda pg 7 — I have changed spellings to agree with Wikipedia

The people of ancient Epirus spoke a Greek dialect. They raised tumuli and built shaft tombs similar to those of the ancient Mycenaeans. After a series of invasions, there were three primary Greek tribes living in Epirus,

The Aeacid (Aeakid) dynasty were Molossian. King Tharrhypas (Tharyps) is supposed to have introduced Greek customs and "humane laws" into Epirus. His son Alcetas was driven from the kingdom, to Syracuse. The Syracusan tyrant Dionysius put him back on the throne. When he died, his son Neoptolemus I took over. Wikipedia claims that Neoptolemus and his brother Arrybas split the kingdom between them. At Neoptolemus' death, he had an infant son Alexander and a daughter Olympias. Arrybas took over the whole kingdom. Facing an invasion from Illria, he married Olympias to king Philip II of Macedon, where she became Alexander the Great's mom. He sent his nephew Alexander to Philip's court. When Alexander turned twenty, Philip deposed Arrybas and put Alexander on the throne, and he annexed Parauaea and Orestis. In 332BC, Alexander crossed over to Italy to help the Tarentines against the Lucanians and Bruttians. After winning some battles, he made a treaty with the Romans. Alexander was killed in a subsequent battle, by a Lucanian exile. Alexander's son Neoptolemus was a minor, so his cousin Aeacides replaced him on the throne. Apparently, his older brother Alcetas had a bad temper.

Plutarch

Pyrrhus was the son of king Aeacides, and Phthia. While Pyrrhus was an infant, Aeacides was expelled and murdered, and the infant Pyrrhus carried by retainers to Glaucias, king of the Illyrians. Glaucias raised the boy, and when he turned twelve, reconquered Epirus for him. At seventeen, Pyrrhus attended the marriage of one of Glaucias' sons, and the Molossians rebelled and put Neoptolemus back on the throne. Pyrrhus took up with Demetrius, known to history, although apparently not to Plutarch, as The Besieger (Poliorcetes). Demetrius was married to Pyrrhus' sister. Pyrrhus accompanied Demetrius and his dad Antigonus to Asia Minor. Pyrrhus distinguished himself as a fighter at the battle of Ipsus even though this was a defeat. He stuck by Demetrius afterwards, becoming a hostage with Ptolemy in Egypt. Again, he made a good impression on everybody, showing off his courage and strength, through hunting and other exercises. He was allowed to marry Antigone, a royal princess, and Ptolemy's step daughter. Antigone helped him to raise money and an army. He returned to Epirus and he forced Neoptolemus to share power. There was much plotting and treachery by both sides, and eventually, Pyrrhus had Neoptolemus killed.

In sole power, Pyrrhus built a city just north of Actium, named Berenike after his mother in law.

Macedon

King Pyrrhus' first adventure was in Macedon, next door. Cassander had died, followed by his son Philip IV shortly afterwards, His two younger sons Antipater and Alexander were to rule jointly, helped by their mother, Alexander the Great's half sister Thessalonike. Antipater murdered Thessalonike, and drove Alexander out of the kingdom. Alexander requested help from Demetrius and from Pyrrhus. Demetrius was busy. Pyrrhus demanded territory as a reward, the districts called Tymphaea and Parauaea in Macedon, and Ambracia, Acarnania, and Amphilochia in Aetolia. Alexander agreed, and Pyrrhus set to work capturing Macedon. Lysimachus in Asia Minor, decided to help out Antipater by sending fake messages from Ptolemy of Egypt. These ought to have had the salutation "The father to the son, health", but Lysimachus wrote "King Ptolemy to Pyrrhus, the king, health", so Pyrrhus was not fooled. Regardless, the kings met and made peace. It is not obvious in Plutarch which kings met. Demetrius now arrived. Demetrius murdered Alexander, and proclaimed himself king of Macedon.

Pyrrhus moved the capital of his kingdom to Ambracia. He built a palace, and the place became prosperous until the Romans plundered it about a century later.

Demetrius' wife and Pyrrhus' sister Deidamia had died, so there was no longer a family relationship. They became rivals for the control of Macedon. Demetrius attacked and subdued the Aetolians, leaving a force behind under Pantauchus. Demetrius marched on Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus marched on Demetrius, but they missed each other, and Demetrius ravaged Epirus. Pyrrhus encountered Pantauchus' forces and fought a fierce battle. Pantauchus was considered to be the best of Demetrius' officers in courage, dexterity and strength, and he challenged Pyrrhus to one to one combat. Pyrrhus, who claimed descent from Achilles, responded, and they fought with lances and swords until both were wounded. Pyrrhus overthrew Pantauchus, but did not (was unable?) to kill him. This encouraged the Epirotes to charge the Macedonian phalanx, rout it, slaughter the fleeing troops and take prisoners.

Surprisingly, the Macedonians responded to their defeat, with admiration for Pyrrhus, who reminded them of "the great" Alexander. Both Alexander and Pyrrhus were swift and strong, and they threw themselves into the middle of their battles. As a leader and a ruler, Pyrrhus was gentle and moderate and he tried very hard to repay favours, and tolerate criticism. He was generous to prisoners and other captured enemies. Returning home victorious, Pyrrhus was proclaimed "Eagle" by the Epirotes. He replied By you, I am an eagle; for how should I not be such, while I have your arms as wings to sustain me?

This seems to have been a quiet period in Pyrrhus' career. He used his time to write a series of books on military tactics and generalship. Pyrrhus was credited by Hannibal with being the first to write about castrametation, the art of laying out military camps. He may also have written about siege devices and tactics.

Hearing that Demetrius was sick, he launched a raid into Macedon, reaching Edessa. Demetrius, recovering, assembled a large army, and chased him back out, inflicting losses. Demetrius was assembling troops for an invasion of Asia Minor, so he made peace with Pyrrhus. Everybody in the eastern Mediterranean could see what Demetrius was up to, and they wrote Pyrrhus to complain.

Pyrrhus had married Lanassa, the daughter of king Agathocles of Syracuse. He received Corcyra (Corfu) as part of her dowry. He also married about couple of barbarian princesses. Fed up with his polygamy, and/or with the fact that his other wives were barbarians, Lanassa moved to Corcyra and offered herself up to any suitable kingly husband. Demetrius sailed around and married her, took over the island, and left a garrison. Ptolemy of Egypt, sailed a large fleet off of some Greek cities. Lysimachus from Asia Minor and Thrace, attacked upper Macedon, Pyrrhus marched on Beroea, hoping to catch Demetrius while he dealt with Lysimachus. Demetrius' troops were mutinous for some reason, so he decided to confront the non-Macedonian Pyrrhus first. He camped out near Beroea, and people, including agents of Pyrrhus, approached his troops and told them that Pyrrhus was invincible in arms, a glorious warrior, who treated those he had taken kindly and humanely It was suggested that Demetrius was tyrannical, and that Pyrrhus would be a better political and military leader. Demetrius had no option but to flee, and Pyrrhus took control of Macedon. Lysimachus now arrived and demanded a share of the kingdom, and Pyrrhus, not sure of his new subjects, agreed to a division.

Tarentum

Meanwhile, the Romans were at war with the Tarentines. The Tarentines were not capable of fighting the Romans, but due to the foolhardiness and the viciousness of their popular speakers, were not willing to give up. It was suggested that they make Pyrrhus their general. Some wiser Tarentines suggested that everybody make merry while they had the freedom to do do, since Pyrrhus would end all of this when he took charge. They were ignored.

A delegation was sent to Pyrrhus, promising him twenty thousand horse and three hundred and fifty thousand foot from the Lucanians, Messapians, and Samnites, as well as the Tarentines.

Warning

At this point, Pyrrhus received words of wisdom from Cineas the Thessalian. Cineas had been a pupil of Demosthenes, the Athenian orator. Cineas became a diplomat in the service of Pyrrhus. He approached Pyrrhus and engaged him in the following dialog, from the A.H. Clough translation of Plutarch... Plutarch

Cineas: The Romans, sir, are reported to be great warriors and conquerors of many warlike nations; if God permit us to overcome them, how should we use our victory?
Pyrrhus: You ask a thing evident of itself. The Romans once conquered, there is neither Greek nor barbarian city that will resist us, but we shall presently be masters of all Italy, the extent and resources and strength of which anyone should rather profess to be ignorant of, than yourself.
Cineas: And having subdued Italy, what shall we do next?
Pyrrhus: Sicily, next holds out her arms to receive us, a wealthy and populous island, and easy to be gained; for since Agathocles left it, only faction and anarchy, and the licentious violence of the demagogues prevail.
Cineas: You speak, what is perfectly probable, but will the possession of Sicily put an end to the war?
Pyrrhus: God grant us, victory and success in that, and we will use these as forerunners of greater things; who could forbear from Libya and Carthage then within reach, which Agathocles, even when forced to fly from Syracuse, and passing the sea only with a few ships, had all but surprised? These conquests once perfected, will any assert that of the enemies who now pretend to despise us, anyone will dare to make further resistance?
Cineas: None, for then it is manifest we may with such mighty forces regain Macedon, and make all absolute conquest of Greece; and when all these are in our power, what shall we do then?
Pyrrhus: We will live at our ease, my dear friend, and drink all day, and divert ourselves with pleasant conversation.
Cineas: And what hinders us now, sir, if we have a mind to be merry, and entertain one another, since we have at hand without trouble all those necessary things, to which through much blood and great labour, and infinite hazards and mischief done to ourselves and to others, we design at last to arrive?

Pyrrhus sent Cineas to Tarentum with three thousand men. He assembled a fleet to follow him with a force of twenty elephants, three thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, two thousand archers, and five hundred slingers. The fleet was scattered by a storm. Pyrrhus made it ashore with a few horse, two thousand men, and two elephants. From Plutarch, it is not clear what the actual damage was. It appears that most of his force eventually reached Tarentum. Once they did, Pyrrhus shut down the Tarentine places of public exercise, and ended their festivals, revels and drinking parties, and he summoned them to arms. Many Tarentines fled the city.

Pyrrhus had left his fifteen year old son Ptolemy in charge of the kingdom. At some point, the boy managed to re-take Corcyra.

Pyrrhus now learned that Roman consul Publius Valerius Laevinus was on the march, laying waste to Lucania. Pyrrhus sent a herald to the Romans asking if they would let him act as mediator. between them and the Italian Greeks. Laevinus replied that they neither accepted him as an arbiter, nor did they fear him as an enemy. Pyrrhus marched his army out and camped near Pandosia and Heraclea. He rode out to inspect their camp, and he was impressed. This order Megacles, of the barbarians, is not at all barbarian in character; we shall see presently what they can do. Megacles was an officer in Pyrrhus' army.

Pyrrhus decided to wait for reinforcements. The Romans decided to cross the river that separated them. Pyrrhus lined up his infantry, and then personally led three thousand of his cavalry in a charge. Plutarch claims that in the heat of battle, Pyrrhus was able to [guide] the battle with a steady and undisturbed reason. Under close attack by the Romans, Pyrrhus' troops dragged him away from the battle. With his cavalry giving way, he brought up his infantry, and he switched armour with Megacles, who was subsequently killed in action. Pyrrhus threw in his elephants and his Thessalian cavalry, and the Romans were routed.

Pyrrhus won the battle, and took possession of the Roman camp. His losses comprised many of his best troops, and many close, trusted friends. He was able to march north, approaching Rome. Many Lucanians and Samnites joined his army.

	Dionysius	Hieronymus
Romans	15,000	7,000
Pyrrhus	13,000	4,000

The Romans did not remove Laevinus from the consulship, and he set to work raising a new army, Pyrrhus, surprised at this, sent Cineas with presents, to negotiate with them. Pyrrhus offered to return the prisoners he had captured, and to help them conquer the rest of Italy, provided they leave Tarentum alone. The Roman Senate was leaning towards peace with Pyrrhus until a distinguished, older member Appius Claudius, appeared and spoke. According to Claudius, negotiation with Pyrrhus was dishonourable and inglorious. Romans had no business fearing Molossians and Chaonians. Pyrrhus was a humble servant to one of Alexander's life guards, escaping from his enemies at home. Rome was going to be laughed at by the Tarentines and Samnites. This worked. Cineas was told that when Pyrrhus and his forces left Italy, the Romans would consider friendship. The Romans set to work raising another army.

The Romans sent Gaius Fabricius to Pyrrhus to negotiate the release of prisoners. Fabricius, who was known to be poor, refused a bribe from Pyrrhus. He was not impressed when Pyrrhus tried to frighten him with an elephant. Apparently, he had discussed Epicurus and his philosophy with Cineas, back in Rome. He told Pyrrhus O Hercules! May Pyrrhus and the Samnites entertain themselves with this sort of opinions as long as they are in war with us. Pyrrhus was impressed, and he tried to recruit him. Fabricius refused. Pyrrhus allowed the prisoners to return home to see their families and participate in a religious festival. It was agreed that they would return afterwards.

Back in Rome, Fabricius became consul, along with Quintus Aemilius. They received a letter from Pyrrhus' physician, offering to poison him in exchange for some suitable reward. They forwarded this to Pyrrhus.

Pyrrhus gratefully returned his Roman prisoners, without demanding a ransom. He tried again to negotiate peace, and again the Romans refused.

Pyrrhus' next battle with the Romans was at Asculum. Pyrrhus won, Hieronymus reporting six thousand Roman losses, and Pyrrhus reporting three thousand five hundred and fifty of his own. Dionysius' account gave the total losses as around fifteen thousand. Upon being congratulated on his victory, Pyrrhus made his famous reply that another such victory would undo him.

Sicily

Pyrrhus now received an offer from Sicily, offering him the cities of Agrigentum, Syracuse, and Leontini, to drive out the Carthaginians, and rid the island of tyrants. He also learned that Ptolemy Ceraunus had perished with his army, fighting the Gauls. This created an opportunity to become king of Macedon. Pyrrhus decided on Sicily. Leaving a garrison and lots of unhappy Tarentines in Tarentum, he crossed over. With an army of thirty thousand foot, twenty five hundred horse, and two hundred ships, he marched across Sicily. Most of the cities just surrendered to him. He routed the Phoenicians, occupied their province, and he prepared to assault their town of Eryx. Pyrrhus led the attack, and was the first up on the wall, capturing the town.

Some barbarians out of Messena called the Mamertines were causing trouble, so Pyrrhus ran a campaign against them. Pyrrhus now started negotiations with Carthage. Carthage offered him money and shipping. Pyrrhus demanded that they leave Sicily, and that the African sea should be the border between the two states. He started to prepare for an invasion of Africa. He had ships, but he lacked sailors. Rather than his customary fair methods, he started conscripting them by force. This ended his popularity with the Sicilians. His relationship with leaders in Syracuse also broke down. People in Sicily started to revolt against Pyrrhus. Meanwhile, the Samnite and Tarentines contacted him to tell him that the Romans were attacking them. Pyrrhus decided to head back to Italy. How brave a field of war do we leave, my friends, for the Romans and Carthaginians to fight in

As he sailed off, he was attacked by the Carthaginians, and he lost many of his ships. When he reached Italy, he found that some Mamertines had crossed ahead of him, and were attacking vulnerable points of his column. At some point, Pyrrhus was wounded, and dragged away from the battle. A large, brightly armoured Mamertine advanced ahead of his group and challenged him to single combat. An enraged and blood spattered Pyrrhus broke away from his guards, struck the man on the head with his sword, and cut the man in two. The Mamertines had had enough, and they let Pyrrhus march in peace.

Back to Tarentum

He arrived at Tarentum with twenty thousand foot and three thousand horse. He recruited some choice Tarentine troops, and he advanced on the Romans. He sent some of troops to Lucania to tie down a Roman force that was there. With his remaining troops, he advanced on the Roman force under consul Manius Curius. Pyrrhus attempted a night march towards the Roman camp. They got confused and then lost, and then the Romans discovered them. The subsequent Battle of Beneventum finally was won by the Romans. The Romans would now be able to conquer all of Italy. After six years, it was time for Pyrrhus to go home.

Back Home

Pyrrhus returned to Epirus with eight thousand foot and five hundred horse. Lacking money to pay them, he looked for a new war. Joined by some Gauls, he invaded Macedon, now ruled by Demetrius' son Antigonus. His intent was to lay waste and plunder the countryside, but success made him more ambitious. He defeated Antigonus, recruiting some of his troops. Antigonus was able to hang on only to some seaport towns. Pyrrhus hung up some spoils in the temple of Minerva Itonis with this inscription...

Pyrrhus, descendant of Molossian kings,

These shields to thee, Itonian goddess, brings,

Won from the valiant Gauls when in the fight

Antigonus and all his host took flight;

'Tis not today nor yesterday alone

That for brave deeds the Aeacidae are known.

Pyrrhus left a garrison of Gauls in Aegae, Macedon's capital. These dug up the tombs of some old kings, stole the treasure, and scattered the bones about. This did not bother Pyrrhus, but it hurt his popularity among the Macedonians.

Sparta and Argos

Pyrrhus was now visited by Cleonymus from Sparta. The Spartans had made Areus king in preference to the arbitrary and absolute Cleonymus. The elderly Cleonymus had married a beautiful young woman of royal blood, named Chilonis, who had fallen in love with Areus' son Acrotatus. Cleonymus invited Pyrrhus to Sparta to put him back in power. There is no mention of straightening out a marriage. Pyrrhus headed for Sparta with twenty five thousand foot, two thousand horse, and twenty four elephants. King Areus was not there, as he had gone to aid the Gortynians in Crete. Pyrrhus judged Sparta to be indefensible, so he did not rush to attack. The Spartans had time to get ready. They considered shipping their women away to Crete, but the women, led by queen Archidamia, refused. The women pitched in to help dig a trench and fortify the position in front of Pyrrhus' camp. This gave the Spartan warriors a chance to rest before the battle. In the morning, the women handed the men their arms, and exhorted them either to conquer, or die gloriously as became Spartans. Chilonis retired with a halter about her neck, resolving to not be taken alive.

Pyrrhus advanced at the head of his infantry. His son Ptolemy, with two thousand Gauls and some choice Chaeonians, marched around to attack the flank. Acrotatus, seeing this, led a counter attack, and drove them off. He returned to town, victorious and covered in blood, he seemed to the Spartans to have become taller and more beautiful. They envied Chilonis having so worthy a lover, and they suggested that he be happy with Chilonis, and beget brave sons for Sparta. Pyrrhus and his troops fought all day trying to get through the fortifications.

They decided to resume the battle the next day. Pyrrhus led the attack from horseback. A Cretan archer managed to kill the horse, and Pyrrhus was thrown off onto slippery and steep ground. The Spartans attacked, and Pyrrhus retreated. Most of the Spartans now were either dead or wounded, and Pyrrhus expected them to yield. Reinforcements arrived. Aminias the Phocian, one of Antigonus's commanders, arrived with mercenaries from Corinth, and Areus returned from Crete with another two thousand men. Pyrrhus's renewed attacks were unsuccessful, so he plundered the countryside.

Meanwhile, there was a feud in Argos. Aristippus was friendly with Antigonus. Aristeas called on Pyrrhus for help against him. Pyrrhus abandoned Sparta and headed for Argos. Areus harassed his forces as he marched away. Pyrrhus sent Ptolemy and some guards to help out. Ptolemy was killed in the fighting by Oryssus, from Aptera in Crete, and the guards fled. Pyrrhus, enraged, led a charge of Molossian horse, killed the Spartan commander, Evalcus, and slaughtered a bunch of other Spartans who tried to defend his body. Pyrrhus resumed his march to Argos. Learning that Antigonus was in the area, he set up camp outside the town. He sent a herald to Antigonus calling him a villain, and challenging him to battle. Antigonus replied that in conducting a campaign he relied more on opportunities than upon arms, and that many roads to death lay open to Pyrrhus if he was tired of life. Plutarch — Perrin 31-1 The Argives sent ambassadors to both kings, asking them to retreat and to allow the city to remain in friendship with both of them. Antigonus agreed to retire, leaving his son as a hostage to the Argives. Pyrrhus also agreed to retreat, but he did not leave a hostage, and was therefore not trusted.

Aristeas left a gate open, and Pyrrhus was able to approach at night, and send his Gauls into the city, where they captured the marketplace. Pyrrhus' elephants did not fit through the gate. It was necessary to remove the towers they carried, and put them back on, inside the walls. The Argives sounded the alarm, grabbed their weapons, and they asked Antigonus for assistance. Areas also arrived with a thousand Cretans and some Spartans. His Gauls were in trouble, so Pyrrhus advanced through the city with a force of cavalry. This moved slowly through he crowded city, and there was much confusion. The next morning, Pyrrhus could see that he needed to retreat. He sent his son Helenus a message telling him to pull down a section of the wall, and assist the retreat. This was garbled, and Helenus marched his best men and the remaining elephants through the gates. Once Pyrrhus got out of the marketplace and into the narrow streets, there was nothing but confusion. An elephant fell over in the gate, blocking the exit. Another elephant's rider had been killed, and it was in panic. Everyone was jammed in and unable to use their weapons.

Nemesis

Pyrrhus removed the crown from his helmet, and rode his horse into the thickest part of the enemy. He was slightly wounded by a lance through his breastplate, by an an Argive, not of any illustrious birth, but the son of a poor old woman Argive of lowly birth, Pyrrhus turned on him. The woman, watching from the rooftops and seeing her son in danger, picked up a tile and threw it with both hands, hitting Pyrrhus on the head below his helmet. Pyrrhus, stunned, fell off his horse. A soldier, a certain Zopyrus, Plutarch Perrin 34-3 who had served under Antigonus, recognized Pyrrhus, and chopped his head off.

In traditional manly literature, Real Men die amid a heap of enemy corpses, or they die by treachery. Plutarch went out of the way to emphasize the poverty and low status of the Argive and his mother. Zopyrus clearly is of low status. Most of Pyrrhus' opponents are described as well armed and noble. Here are the other warriors who confronted Pyrrhus and son on the battlefield...

Pyrrhus was warned by the wise Cineas, he ignored it, and the gods struck him down ignominiously.

In his account of Pyrrhus, Plutarch remarks repeatedly about the innate disease of princes, ambition of greater empire. I don't see this sort of thing in other accounts by Plutarch, or by any other ancient writer. It appears that the gods had it in for Pyrrhus.

Perhaps Plutarch has written an accurate history of Pyrrhus of Epirus! In my article on History Movies, I present the Titanic as an example of Greek Tragedy. The standard story of RMS Titanic is fairly accurate. The ship was the biggest in the world, admittedly by a very small margin. Its alleged unsinkability was not pushed as hard at the time as the legend would have you believe. In the movie, Kate Winslet asked about the number of lifeboats. It sunk. We have no way to verify Cineas' speech, or the biographies of the Argives who killed him.

Other Sources

Antigonus respectfully cremated Pyrrhus in the marketplace, and built a white marble monument to him. He took control of Pyrrhus' army, and he sent Helenus back to Epirus.

Pyrrhus' eldest surviving son became king Alexander II. He invaded Macedon, but was defeated and deposed by Antigonus. The Aetolians helped him back into power. When he died a few years later, his wife Olympias took over as regent for their sons Pyrrhus II and Ptolemy II. Pyrrhus II died fairly young, and he was succeeded by Ptolemy II. Ptolemy died while campaigning against the Aetolians, and Olympias died from grief. Pyrrhus II had a daughter Deidamia, who took over, but was murdered. Sekunda pg 23 She was the last of the Aeacidae.

Character

Pyrrhus was a part of the Hellenistic military tradition. His armies fought in phalanxes. Pyrrhus participated in close combat much the way Alexander the Great did.

Asked by one of his sons who he would leave his kingdom to, he replied To that one of you who keeps his sword the sharpest.. Plutarch Perrin 9-2 Alexander the Great had a similar reply to this question. Traditionally, he is supposed to have said The Strongest.

Like a number of Greek kings, Pyrrhus was completely focused on warfare. For instance, we are told that when he was asked at a drinking-party whether he thought Python or Caphisias the better flute-player, he replied that Polysperchon was a good general, implying that it became a king to investigate and understand such matters only. Plutarch Perrin 8-2 In Plutarch's Sayings of Spartans, King Demaratus, listening to a musician, is is supposed to have said He seems to do his silly task fairly well. Spartans Evidently, this was a part of Greek royal and military thinking.

He is described by Plutarch thus... In the aspect of his countenance Pyrrhus had more of the terror than of the majesty of kingly power. Plutarch Perrin 3-4 There is no discussion what was terrifying about him. Was he enormous? Did he have a scary face? He was first over the walls at Eryx — but most he laid dead in heaps about him with the strokes of his sword. He himself suffered no harm, but was a terrible sight for his enemies to look upon, and proved that Homer was right and fully justified in saying that valour, alone of the virtues, often displays transports due to divine possession and frenzy. Plutarch Perrin p22-5 It is too bad Plutarch and other writers do not tell us what was terrifying about Pyrrhus. His sculptures show a reasonably normal face. Was he big? Was he powerfully built?

Rating Pyrrhus

Asked who the greatest soldier was, Antigonus the one‑eyed replied "Pyrrhus, if he lives to be old." Plutarch Antigonus' only opportunity to watch Pyrrhus in battle was at Ipsus, and he was killed, aged eighty one.

According to Plutarch, Hannibal regarded Pyrrhus as the best general for skill and conduct, rating Scipio Africanus second, and himself, third. Plutarch

According to Livy, Hannibal, talking to Scipio Africanus, rated Alexander of Macedon as the greatest, "for with a small force he routed innumerable armies and traversed the most distant shores of the world which no man ever hoped to visit." Next was Pyrrhus. "... he was the first who taught how to lay out a camp, and moreover no one ever showed more cleverness in the choice of positions and the disposition of troops. He possessed, too, the art of winning popularity to such an extent that the nations of Italy preferred the rule of a foreign king to that of the Roman people who had so long held the foremost place in that country." Hannibal rated himself third. Asked what if he vanquished Scipio, he replied "I should say that I surpassed Alexander and Pyrrhus, and all other commanders in the world." Scipio was suitably impressed. Livy 35.14

Justin, an historian of the third century AD wrote And such, they say, was this man's grasp of military science that he remained consistently undefeated in his campaigns against the mighty kings Lysimachus, Demetrius and Anitgonus; while in those against Illyrians, the Sicilians, the Romans, and the the Carthaginians, he was never the loser and very often emerged the victor. It is certainly true that the fame of his achievements and the glory surrounding his name brought worldwide renown to his hitherto small and insignificant country Sekunda Pg 3

At the end of my presentation, someone brought up the point that while Pyrrhus defeated Roman armies in battle, they made orderly withdrawals. Hannibal practically annihilated Roman armies at Trasimene and Cannae. It appears that Hannibal had every right to rate himself ahead of Pyrrhus, yet he didn't.

Weapons, Armour and Tactics

A hoplite was a heavy infantryman fighting in formation, carrying a heavy shield called a hoplon or aspis, a spear called a dory, and some sort of sword as a backup weapon. According to Wikipedia, the dory was two to four metres long (6'7" to 9'10"). YouTube re-enactor Lindybeige claims that it is not practical to one‑hand wield a spear longer than eight feet. Hoplite tactics were widely adopted by Greeks, Etruscans and other tribes in Italy. Heavily armoured hoplites dominated Greek warfare from the pre-classical period through the Persian wars. During the Peloponnesean war, the Greeks made increasing use of light infantry like peltasts. The hoplites reduced their weight by throwing away their breastplates, and by wearing more open helmets, like the pylos helmet.

The Macedonian phalanx was a tactical innovation of King Philip II, and used in battle by both Alexander the Great, and Pyrrhus. The formation was assembled around soldiers carrying the twenty foot sarissas or pikes. The sarissa required to two hands to manage, so they carried a smaller shield, which was held in place by a leather strap over the neck and shoulder. There seems to have been an arm loop in the centre of the shield. The phalanx's long spears gave them a superior reach to the older hoplite formations. Lendon Pg 122

Here is YouTube channel Lindybeige discussing sixteenth century European pike formations in battle — Renaissance pikes. I don't totally agree with him. The Macedonian shield was held in place by the leather strap, and a loop for the soldier's elbow. There was no way to move it around. It would stop a lot of random arrows and javelins from a distance. Up close, the solder would rely on his armour, and his buddies behind him. He might be right about Renaissance pikemen not hurting each other. They were mercenaries.

In Italy, Pyrrhus faced the Roman manipular legions. The manipular legion consisted of around 4200 men deployed in four ranks.

It is not known for certain how the manipular legion worked. It's very deep deployment made it easy to flank. Individual Roman soldiers were intensely competitive, and as velites, they were eager to engage in single, glorious combat, and they wore distinctive markings, so that they would be observed doing so. Lendon Pg 122

Elephants

Most of Pyrrhus' armies were accompanied by elephants. The twenty elephants transported across the Ionian sea to Tarentum were Indian elephants, captured from Demetrius in Macedon. There is no mention anywhere of these elephants being used by Demetrius against Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus brought none of them home, but his son Helenus may have brought some later. He had twenty four elephants for his invasion of Sparta, "acquired" from Antigonus in Macedon again, and again, there is no mention of Pyrrhus facing them in battle. Sekunda pg 40

The elephants were equipped with towers, possibly invented by Pyrrhus. In later battles, the crews in the towers used sarissas against the enemy down below. Pyrrhus' crews probably threw javelins of some sort, and the elephants killed enemy soldiers with their tusks, or by running them over and trampling them. Sekunda pg 41

The Romans developed anti-elephant carts, and Sekunda shows a nice picture of one, but according to the notes at the end of the book, this is "entirely speculative", based on a contemporary description. These were "propelled by oxen", which perhaps means they pushed from the rear. They do not seem to have been effective. Sekunda pg 47

I can make a general point about elephants and anti-elephant carts. During World War II, the allies encountered Mitsubishi Zeros which established superiority over allied fighter aircraft with their superior manoeuvrability. The Americans worked out rules for encountering them.

The first time, you meet elephants in battle, and they are terrifying and destructive. At some point, you learn effective tactics.